The present invention relates generally to programmed cell death and specifically to methods for expansion of hematopoietic cells, for prolonging viablility of an organ for transplantation, and maintaining viability of cell lines used in bioproduction using interleukin-1xcex2-converting enzyme (ICE)/CED-3 family inhibitors.
The present invention relates generally to programmed cell death and specifically to methods for expansion of hematopoietic cells, for prolonging viablility of an organ for transplantation, and maintaining viability of cell lines used in bioproduction using interleukin-1xcex2-converting enzyme (ICE)/CED-3 family inhibitors.
Necrosis and apoptosis are two basic processes by which cells may die. In necrosis cell death usually is a result of cell injury. The cells generally swell and lyse, and the cell contents ultimately spill into the extracellular space. By contrast, apoptosis is a mode of cell death in which single cells are deleted in the midst of living tissues. Apoptosis accounts for most of the programmed cell death in tissue remodeling and for the cell loss that accompanies atrophy of adult tissues following withdrawal of endocrine and growth stimuli. In addition, apoptosis is believed to be responsible for the physiologic death of cells in the course of normal tissue turnover (i.e. tissue homeostasis) (Kerr, J. F. et al, 1972. Br. J. Cancer 26:239-257; Wyllie A. H., et al. 1980. Int. Rev. Cytol. 68:251-306).
The effector mechanisms of apoptosis are not completely understood, but ultimately, certain nuclear changes occur that appear to be caused by the activation of endogenous nucleases that cleave chromatin between nucleosomes and reduce the content of intact DNA in apoptotic cells. A number of regulators of apoptosis have been identified. Some of these are already familiar as protooncogenes and oncosuppressor genes, including c-myc, bcl-2, p53, and ras. The protooncogene products and oncosuppressor proteins are believed to control cellular susceptibility to apoptosis (Isaacs, J. T. 1994. Curr. Opin. Oncol. 6:82-89). C-myc can determine whether cells continuously proliferate or enter apoptosis, depending on the availability of critical growth factors (Bisonnette, R. P., et al. 1994. In Apoptosis II: The Molecular Basis of Apoptosis in Disease. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press). In cultured cells, proliferation is usually observed in the presence of c-myc and growth factors, whereas apoptosis is seen when c-myc is present but growth factors are absent. Certain other oncogenes (e.g., bcl-2) rescue cells from susceptibility to apoptosis. Specifically, members of the bcl-2 gene family can act to inhibit programmed cell death (e.g., bcl-2, bcl-xL, ced-9) or promote cell death (e.g., bax, bak, bcl-xS). Additionally, members of the ICE/CED-3 family can promote cell death (e.g., ICE, CPP32, Ich-1, CED3).
Interleukin 1 (xe2x80x9cIL-1xe2x80x9d) is a major pro-inflammatory and immunoregulatory protein that stimulates fibroblast differentiation and proliferation, the production of prostaglandins, collagenase and phospholipase by synovial cells and chondrocytes, basophil and eosinophil degranulation and neutrophil activation. Oppenheim, J. H. et al., Immunology Today. 7:45-56 (1986). As such, it is involved in the pathogenesis of chronic and acute inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. IL-1 is predominantly produced by peripheral blood monocytes as part of the inflammatory response. Mosely, B. S. et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 84:4572-4576 (1987); Lonnemann, G. et al., Eur. J. Immunol., 19:1531-1536 (1989).
Mammalian IL-1xcex2 is synthesized as a precursor polypeptide of about 31.5 kDa (Limjuco, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 83:3972, 1986). Precursor IL-1xcex2 is unable to bind to IL-1 receptors and is biologically inactive (Mosley, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 262:2941, 1987). Biological activity appears dependent upon proteolytic processing which results in the conversion of the precursor 31.5 kDa form to the mature 17.5 kDa form.
Proteolytic maturation of human precursor IL-1xcex2 to mature, 17 kDa IL-1xcex2 results from cleavage between Asp116 and Ala117. An endoproteinase, termed Interleukin-1xcex2 Converting Enzyme (ICE), has been identified in human monocytes that is capable of cleaving the IL-1xcex2 precursor at Asp116-Ala117, as well as at the site Asp27-Gly28, and generating mature IL-1xcex2 with the appropriate amino terminus at Ala117. The Asp at position 116 has been found to be essential for cleavage, since substitution of Ala (Kostura, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 86:5227, 1989) or other amino acids (Howard, et al., J. Immunol., 147:2964, 1991) for Asp inhibits this cleavage event.
The substrate specificity of human ICE has been defined with the use of peptides that span the cleavage site of the enzyme. Two features of peptide substrates are essential for catalytic recognition by the enzyme. First, there is a strong preference for aspartic acid adjacent to the cleavage site, in that any substitution of this residue in the IL-1xcex2 precursor and peptide substrates leads to a substantial reduction in the rate of catalysis (Kostura, et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 86:5227, 1989; Sleath, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 265:14526, 1990; Howard, et al., J. Immunol., 147:2964, 1991). There is an equally stringent requirement for four amino acids to the left of the cleavage site, whereas methylamine is sufficient to the right. The minimal substrate for the enzyme, AC-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-NHxe2x80x94CH3, is a particularly good peptide substrate with a relative Vmax/Km similar to that of the IL-1xcex2 precursor itself (Thornberry, et al., Nature 356:768, 1992).
ICE is a cysteinyl proteinase by the following criteria: (1) the diazomethylketone AC-Tyr-Val-Ala-Asp-COCHN2 is a potent, competitive, irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme, (2) inactivation of the enzyme by iodoacetate is competitive with substrate, and (3) the catalytically active Cys reacts selectively with [14C] iodoacetate more than 10 times faster than do other cysteines or dithiothreitol (Thornberry, et al., Nature, 356:768, 1992).
ICE is related structurally and functionally to the CED-3 protease that functions as a cell death effector in the roundworm C. elegans (Yuan, et al., Cell, 75:641, 1993). ICE and CED-3 form part of a larger family of proteases (the ICE/CED-3 family) that includes CPP32, ICH-1, Mch-2, ICErelII, ICErelIII, Mch-3, Mch4 and Mch-5. All of these enzymes are cysteine proteases that share significant homology at their active sites. They also share the specificity for substrate cleavage at asp-x bonds. Additionally, each of the ICE/CED-3 family members is synthesized as a pro-enzyme that is then proteolytically activated to form an active enzyme.
Thus, disease states in which inhibitors of the ICE/ced-3 family of cysteine proteases may be useful as therapeutic agents include: infectious diseases, such as meningitis and salpingitis; septic shock, respiratory diseases; inflammatory conditions, such as arthritis, cholangitis, colitis, encephalitis, endocerolitis, hepatitis, pancreatitis and reperfusion injury, ischemic diseases such as the myocardial infarction, stroke and ischemic kidney disease; immune-based diseases, such as hypersensitivity; auto-immune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis; bone diseases; and certain neurodegenerative diseases.
In various cell culture systems, it has been shown that inhibition of ICE/CED-3 family members can effectively inhibit apoptosis. For example, the compound acetyl-DEVD-aldehyde inhibited anti-Fas induced apoptosis in a T-lymphocyte cell line (Schlegel, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 271:1841, 1996; Enari, et al., Nature, 380:723, 1996). Similarly, acetyl-YVAD-aldehyde and acetyl-YVAD-chloromethylketone blocked the death of motoneurons in vitro and in vivo (Milligan, et al., Neuron, 15:385, 1995). In addition, the ICE/CED-3 family inhibitor Boc-D-(benzyl) chloromethylketone as well as crmA prevented the cell death of mammary epithelial cells that occurs in the absence of extracellular matrix (Boudreau, et al., Science, 267:891, 1995).
It is known that control of apoptosis may have utility in treating disease. Specifically, inhibitors of the ICE/CED-3 family may have therapeutic effects. For example, it has been suggested that inhibition of ICE may be useful in the treatment of inflammatory disorders (Dolle, et al., J. Med. Chem., 37:563, 1994; Thornberry, et al., Biochemistry, 33:3934, 1994). It is also known that inhibitors of ICE/CED-3 family members may have utility in treating degenerative diseases such as neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer""s disease, Parkinson""s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington""s disease), ischemic disease of heart or central nervous system (i.e., myocardial infarction and stroke), and traumatic brain injury, as well as in alopecia, AIDS and toxin induced liver disease (Nicholson, Nature Biotechnology 14:297, 1996).
Peptide and peptidyl inhibitors of ICE have been described. However, such inhibitors have been typically characterized by undesirable pharmacologic properties, such as poor oral absorption, poor stability and rapid metabolism. Plattner, J. J. and D. W. Norbeck, in Drug Discovery Technologies, C. R Clark and W. H. Moos, Eds. (Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England, 1990), pp. 92-126. These undesirable properties have hampered their development into effective drugs. The methods of this invention include either the use of conformationally constrained dipeptide mimetics or a N-substituted indolyl peptide replacement. These mimetics exhibit improved properties relative to their peptidic counterparts, for example, such as improved absorption and metabolic stability resulting in enhanced bioavailability.
The present invention is directed to preventing the programmed death of cells by inhibiting the activity of proteases of the interleukin- 1xcex2-converting enzyme (ICE)/CED-3 family. The current invention provides new methods for using ICE/CED-3 inhibitors. The present invention provides a method of using ICE/CED-3 inhibitors to expand hematopoietic cell subpopulations, enhance survival of cells, including granulocytes, in vitro, for use in cell transfusions, enhance survival of various organs, and enhance bioproduction from cells in vitro.
In a first embodiment, the invention provides a method for expanding hematopoietic cell populations or enhancing their survival, including contacting the cells with an effective amount of a reagent which suppresses the activity of at least one member of the ICE/CED-3 family thereby inhibiting the programmed cell death of immature precursors and/or mature cells and expanding and/or enhancing the survival of the cell population. Cell populations included in the method of the invention include granulocytes, monocytes, erythrocytes, lymphocytes and platelets.
In another embodiment, the invention provides a method for prolonging organ viability prior to and/or following transplantation, comprising contacting the cells of an organ with an inhibiting effective amount of a reagent which suppresses one or more ICE/CED-3 family members"" activity, thereby prolonging the viability of the organ as compared to an untreated organ. An organ for transplantation can be treated with such a reagent either in vivo, ex vivo, or both. The organ may be either an intact organ, or isolated cells derived from an organ (e.g., isolated pancreatic islet cells, isolated dopaminergic neurons, blood or hematopoietic cells).
In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for increasing bioproduction in vitro comprising contacting bioproducing host cells with a reagent which suppresses the activity of at least one member of the ICE/CED-3 family, thereby increasing survival of such cells in vitro.
Exemplary compounds useful as ICE/CED-3 inhibitors are also included herein. Such compounds and methods of synthesis are described in their entirety in co-pending U.S. patent applications Ser. Nos. 08/710,621, filed Sep. 20, 1996 and 08/767,175, filed Dec. 16, 1996 and their respective continuations-in-part.